![]() Referring to a woman and a man or to a man and a woman is not perceived as being the same, and the resulting biased representations – toward the first person mentioned – have been well documented ( Hegarty et al., 2016). For example, at a syntactic level, word order may signal to readers or listeners specific semantic and societal hierarchies (e.g., Hegarty et al., 2016 Kesebir, 2017). There are different ways that this can happen. However, language contributes to biased gender representations in other ways, with its intrinsic characteristics creeping into the way we perceive women and men. Consequently, one can easily argue that language biases gender representations through its communicative functions. For example, ordinary people, as well as the media, communicate gender-stereotypical expectations with regard to gender-appropriate behaviors and roles for women and men, and such communication might lead individuals to define themselves and behave in accord with these expectations (e.g., Hannover, 2002 Sczesny et al., 2018). As such, language acts not only as a vehicle for beliefs, but also as a tool that builds them. The way we perceive women and men in society is partly grounded in the way we speak or write about these two groups. We also offer a critical discussion of any endeavor to classify languages according to grammatical gender. Our index goes beyond existing ones in that it provides specific dimensions relevant to those interested in psychological and sociological impacts of language on the way we perceive women and men. Our index is based on five main language groups (i.e., grammatical gender languages, languages with a combination of grammatical gender and natural gender, natural gender languages, genderless languages with few traces of grammatical gender and genderless languages) and three sets of specific features (morphology, masculine-male generics and asymmetries). In this paper, we present a language index for researchers interested in the effect of grammatical gender on the mental representations of women and men. Although such variations across languages offer interesting grounds for legitimate cross-linguistic comparisons, pertinent characteristics of grammatical systems – especially in terms of their gender asymmetries – have to be clearly identified. Psycholinguistic investigations of the way readers and speakers perceive gender have shown several biases associated with how gender is linguistically realized in language. 7Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany.6Institute for Psychology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany.5Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.4School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom.3Institute of French Language and Literature, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.2Department for German Language and Literature, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland. ![]() 1Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.We discuss the variation in our results by reviewing relevant eco-gender literatures and feminist economics.Pascal Mark Gygax 1*, Daniel Elmiger 2, Sandrine Zufferey 3, Alan Garnham 4, Sabine Sczesny 5, Lisa von Stockhausen 6, Friederike Braun 7 and Jane Oakhill 4 Finally, we find that increases in the number of women in parliament and women’s education attenuate the relationship between women’s labor force participation and CIWB. Our results further show that the relationship between different dimensions of gender equality and CIWB differs between more developed and less developed nations. Our findings indicate that across all nations, increases in the percentage of women in parliament and expected years of schooling reduce CIWB however, increases in the percentage of women in the labor force increase CIWB. We estimate a series of Prais-Winsten regression models with panel-corrected standard errors (PCSE) to assess how increases in the percentage of women in parliament, expected years of education for women, and the percentage of women in the labor force independently affect CIWB. This study uses panel data for 70 nations between 19 to assess how various aspects of gender equality affect the ecological efficiency of nations. Although research demonstrates that economic development typically reduces this efficiency, little research has explored the extent to which social equality improves it. The carbon intensity of well-being (CIWB) (a ratio measuring the amount of CO2 emitted per unit of life expectancy at birth) is an increasingly popular way to measure the ecological efficiency of nations.
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